Editor's note: Today's column is the fourth in a series by John Waelti on the American Atomic Veterans.
Military historians cite American conquest of the Marianas Island chain as the point at which Japanese defeat in WWII was certain. The Marianas brought American bombers within 1,200 miles of Japan. The costly conquest of Iwo Jima reduced that range to 660 miles, enabling fighter escort.
The conquest of Okinawa in July 1945, a mere three hundred miles from Japan, would provide a base of operations for invading the home islands. The battle for Okinawa took longer than expected. With each step closer to Japan, defenses improved and defenders became ever more tenacious and dedicated to defending their homeland.
The battle for Okinawa cost nearly 4,600 Army and 3,000 Marine dead. During that battle the deadly suicide kamakazes sank 36 Navy ships, damaged 386 more, and cost the lives of 4,900 American sailors.
In addition to American casualties and some 110,000 Japanese military deaths, more than 80,000 civilians died in the battle for Okinawa. This staggering loss of life was precursor to what was feared to happen with the planned invasion of the Japanese homeland.
From the Marianas, a March 1945 bombing raid on Tokyo had cost 83,000 deaths and left more than one million people homeless. Next were Osaka, Kobe, and Nagoya, and then a respite, as the 20th Air Force was redirected to support the Okinawa invasion.
In June, General LeMay's bombers resumed raids on secondary Japanese cities, Tsu, Aomori, Ichinomiya, and Toyama, followed by Kure and Kobe naval bases.
General Douglas MacArthur and Admiral Chester Nimitz headed plans for the ultimate invasion of Japan, code-named "Operation Downfall." The Navy favored a blockade supported by an air campaign. The Army believed an invasion to the heart of Japan was necessary. The Pentagon favored the Army plan and named MacArthur as Supreme Commander.
There were few beaches satisfactory for large-scale amphibious operations, limited to the southern part of Japan's southern island, Kyushu, and its major island, Honshu, at Kanto, near Tokyo Bay. The Japanese understood this very well, and planned accordingly.
"Operation Downfall" consisted of two phases. The first, "Operation Olympic," was slated for November 1, 1945, with Okinawa as the staging area. The invasion fleet would include 42 aircraft carriers, 24 battleships, and more than 400 destroyers and destroyer escorts. Twelve Army and Marine divisions would form the assault force. The objective was to conquer and hold the southern third of Kyushu and use it as a base from which to attack other targets.
"Olympic" would support the larger second phase, "Operation Coronet." The proposed landings on the beaches at Kanto were scheduled for March 1, 1946. It was planned to be the largest amphibious operation in history with 25 divisions in the initial invasion. This force would include veterans left standing in the Pacific Theater and combat vets who had survived the march across Europe to defeat Nazi Germany.
The Japanese, having correctly anticipated landings at Kyushu, planned a deadly reception for the Americans. Their plan to crush the American assault force consisted of two phases. A static defense force would fight to the death on the beach, exacting as high a price to the American landing force as possible. A force of battle-hardened, Japanese combat troops fresh from China and Manchuria would be held in reserve, intended to push the weakened American invaders back into the sea.
In addition to battle-tested troops defending their homeland, more than 15,000 aircraft were prepared as kamikazes. While Japan had lost the crème de la crème of its fighter pilots, its kamikazes had already sunk or damaged 250-allied Navy ships and cost the lives of thousands of sailors. hile not all kamikazes would get through, some surely would. Any hits on American troop ships would cost thousands of American lives before they would even fire a shot.
Add to this, civilians trained as suicide bombers to be used against American armor, and ugly urban combat in which one can't distinguish civilian from military personnel. In any case, civilians would be caught in artillery bombardment and crossfire. Civilian casualties would be frightening under any circumstances.
Anticipated American casualties would be staggering. Here are a few estimates from summer of 1945.
US Joint Chiefs: "Operation Olympic" alone would cost 450,000 casualties, with 109,000 killed. Including "Operation Coronet," 1.2 million casualties with 267,000 American deaths.
Chester Nimitz staff estimates: 49,000 men during the first 30 days of "Operation Olympic."
General MacArthur's staff estimates: 125,000 casualties after 120 days, later reduced to 105,000 assuming wounded who would return to battle.
General Marshall in conference with President Truman: An estimated 31,000 casualties in 30 days after landing at Kyushu.
Navy Department estimates: Between 1.7 and 4 million casualties with between 400,000 and 800,000 deaths, in addition to ten million Japanese casualties.
Estimation of battle casualties is a cold exercise in numbers and statistics. For the planned invasion, the "Saipan standard," based on the conquest of the Marianas, was used as a benchmark.
Statistics are cold. But for those combat veterans still standing in August 1945, the invasion of Japan meant high probability of loss of life or limb.
If the tenacity with which the Japanese defended the outlying islands were any indication, defense of their homeland was fearsome to contemplate. Many Americans slated for the invasion considered themselves as good as dead. The 500,000 Purple Heart medals manufactured to be awarded to the wounded in the anticipated invasion may not have been sufficient.
Little could those who were training for the invasion and facing imminent death know that an elite group of scientists had been working on a top secret project-developing a super weapon they referred to as "the gadget," that would make invasion unnecessary.
There is usually a caveat included in such matters. The caveat in this case is that this "gadget" would usher in the dawn of a new-and very frightening-age.
To be continued...
Military historians cite American conquest of the Marianas Island chain as the point at which Japanese defeat in WWII was certain. The Marianas brought American bombers within 1,200 miles of Japan. The costly conquest of Iwo Jima reduced that range to 660 miles, enabling fighter escort.
The conquest of Okinawa in July 1945, a mere three hundred miles from Japan, would provide a base of operations for invading the home islands. The battle for Okinawa took longer than expected. With each step closer to Japan, defenses improved and defenders became ever more tenacious and dedicated to defending their homeland.
The battle for Okinawa cost nearly 4,600 Army and 3,000 Marine dead. During that battle the deadly suicide kamakazes sank 36 Navy ships, damaged 386 more, and cost the lives of 4,900 American sailors.
In addition to American casualties and some 110,000 Japanese military deaths, more than 80,000 civilians died in the battle for Okinawa. This staggering loss of life was precursor to what was feared to happen with the planned invasion of the Japanese homeland.
From the Marianas, a March 1945 bombing raid on Tokyo had cost 83,000 deaths and left more than one million people homeless. Next were Osaka, Kobe, and Nagoya, and then a respite, as the 20th Air Force was redirected to support the Okinawa invasion.
In June, General LeMay's bombers resumed raids on secondary Japanese cities, Tsu, Aomori, Ichinomiya, and Toyama, followed by Kure and Kobe naval bases.
General Douglas MacArthur and Admiral Chester Nimitz headed plans for the ultimate invasion of Japan, code-named "Operation Downfall." The Navy favored a blockade supported by an air campaign. The Army believed an invasion to the heart of Japan was necessary. The Pentagon favored the Army plan and named MacArthur as Supreme Commander.
There were few beaches satisfactory for large-scale amphibious operations, limited to the southern part of Japan's southern island, Kyushu, and its major island, Honshu, at Kanto, near Tokyo Bay. The Japanese understood this very well, and planned accordingly.
"Operation Downfall" consisted of two phases. The first, "Operation Olympic," was slated for November 1, 1945, with Okinawa as the staging area. The invasion fleet would include 42 aircraft carriers, 24 battleships, and more than 400 destroyers and destroyer escorts. Twelve Army and Marine divisions would form the assault force. The objective was to conquer and hold the southern third of Kyushu and use it as a base from which to attack other targets.
"Olympic" would support the larger second phase, "Operation Coronet." The proposed landings on the beaches at Kanto were scheduled for March 1, 1946. It was planned to be the largest amphibious operation in history with 25 divisions in the initial invasion. This force would include veterans left standing in the Pacific Theater and combat vets who had survived the march across Europe to defeat Nazi Germany.
The Japanese, having correctly anticipated landings at Kyushu, planned a deadly reception for the Americans. Their plan to crush the American assault force consisted of two phases. A static defense force would fight to the death on the beach, exacting as high a price to the American landing force as possible. A force of battle-hardened, Japanese combat troops fresh from China and Manchuria would be held in reserve, intended to push the weakened American invaders back into the sea.
In addition to battle-tested troops defending their homeland, more than 15,000 aircraft were prepared as kamikazes. While Japan had lost the crème de la crème of its fighter pilots, its kamikazes had already sunk or damaged 250-allied Navy ships and cost the lives of thousands of sailors. hile not all kamikazes would get through, some surely would. Any hits on American troop ships would cost thousands of American lives before they would even fire a shot.
Add to this, civilians trained as suicide bombers to be used against American armor, and ugly urban combat in which one can't distinguish civilian from military personnel. In any case, civilians would be caught in artillery bombardment and crossfire. Civilian casualties would be frightening under any circumstances.
Anticipated American casualties would be staggering. Here are a few estimates from summer of 1945.
US Joint Chiefs: "Operation Olympic" alone would cost 450,000 casualties, with 109,000 killed. Including "Operation Coronet," 1.2 million casualties with 267,000 American deaths.
Chester Nimitz staff estimates: 49,000 men during the first 30 days of "Operation Olympic."
General MacArthur's staff estimates: 125,000 casualties after 120 days, later reduced to 105,000 assuming wounded who would return to battle.
General Marshall in conference with President Truman: An estimated 31,000 casualties in 30 days after landing at Kyushu.
Navy Department estimates: Between 1.7 and 4 million casualties with between 400,000 and 800,000 deaths, in addition to ten million Japanese casualties.
Estimation of battle casualties is a cold exercise in numbers and statistics. For the planned invasion, the "Saipan standard," based on the conquest of the Marianas, was used as a benchmark.
Statistics are cold. But for those combat veterans still standing in August 1945, the invasion of Japan meant high probability of loss of life or limb.
If the tenacity with which the Japanese defended the outlying islands were any indication, defense of their homeland was fearsome to contemplate. Many Americans slated for the invasion considered themselves as good as dead. The 500,000 Purple Heart medals manufactured to be awarded to the wounded in the anticipated invasion may not have been sufficient.
Little could those who were training for the invasion and facing imminent death know that an elite group of scientists had been working on a top secret project-developing a super weapon they referred to as "the gadget," that would make invasion unnecessary.
There is usually a caveat included in such matters. The caveat in this case is that this "gadget" would usher in the dawn of a new-and very frightening-age.
To be continued...
